Growth continued at a rapid pace. The colonial population stood at 275,000 by 1700, increased to over one million by 1750 and more than doubled in the next 25 years. Numerous battles over territorial rights were waged between Great Britain, France and Spain as well as between Colonial Americans and Native Peoples. As a result, the French lost much of their territory to the British and Spanish; whole tribes of Indians were virtually eliminated; and major Indian territories were lost to European encroachment. Attempting to protect its interests, Britain introduced a plan of imperial reorganization in 1763, which infuriated colonists.

1764 to 1783

Public opinion was further inflamed by Britain’s attempts to rebuild its dwindling financial resources by levying taxes. When opposition proved futile, the Original Thirteen Colonies united against the Mother Country. At issue were political, economic, cultural and geographic matters. War erupted in 1775. The Declaration of Independence was formally approved on July 4, 1776. After American successes at the Battles of Saratoga, France stepped in to help with substantial military and financial aid. Our first constitution, called the Articles of Confederation, was informally adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781. America became an independent nation in 1783, bounded on the north by the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, on the west by the Mississippi River and on the south by Spanish Florida.

1783 to 1840+

The Articles of Confederation had established a loose union of largely independent states and granted only limited power to a central government. It was a weak solution. A new Constitutional Convention was held in 1787; the Articles of Confederation was scrapped; and the Constitution of the United States of America became our supreme law. In 1789, our national government met for the first time, with George Washington as President.

Still, numerous difficulties marred the nation’s early years. Among them: partisan politics, attacks by Barbary pirates, the Whiskey Rebellion against taxation, diplomatic issues with Great Britain and France, unpopular public policies, and the controversial Louisiana Purchase. Then came the War of 1812 (our second war of independence), during which the British invaded Washington, DC, and burned the White House.

A superficial “Era of Good Feelings” followed the war’s end and continued until 1825. It was a time when political rivalries were minimal and a spirit of nationalism prevailed. Literature and technology flourished. Much of the country’s attention was focused on transportation systems, industry and westward expansion. But then came more problems: the Spoils System (government jobs given to political supporters), Tariff of Abominations (high tariff on imports), the nullification crisis (South Carolina, angry over the tariff, threatened to secede), more tensions with Britain, and mounting discontent over Mexico’s hold on California. In addition, the population nearly doubled, from 9,650,000 in 1820 to 17,060,000 in 1840. America’s early years weren’t easy; but they certainly were interesting.

Take a quick look at what occurred during the formative period covered by this book.

Pre-history to 1500s

When the first Europeans arrived in the “New” World, America was already a very old place. It had seen entire civilizations rise and fall through power struggles, religious differences, climate changes, etc. The Native Peoples - descendants of the ice age travelers who arrived on this continent 18,000-30,000 years ago - transformed themselves from foragers to farmers, and from clans to nations. In the process, they achieved rich cultural diversity, elaborate political structures, highly cooperative societies, imaginative art and architecture, complex religions and belief systems, and much more that rivaled what was happening elsewhere in the world. Although often misunderstood by outsiders, they could not fairly be viewed as either primitive or uncivilized.

1500s to 1630

Christopher Columbus’ voyages to this continent from 1492-1504 opened the door to significant changes. But European colonization did not come easily. The first settlements ­ Spanish in 1526, French in 1562 and English in 1585 ­ all failed. African slaves left behind by the Spanish were the first permanent settlers. The Spanish fort/city of St. Augustine, FL (c. 1565) became the first surviving colony. The first successful English settlement was in 1607 at Jamestown, VA. Africans arrived there in 1619. (Listed as “servants” in historic records, they may have been either indentured servants or slaves.) The Dutch settled on Manhattan Island in 1614. The French didn’t succeed until the late 1600s. All told, the impact on Native Peoples was devastating: battles, enslavement, displacement and deadly disease.

1630 to 1764

An increasing number of Europeans confiscated Indian lands and destroyed Native societies. The Indians fought back, often aggressively, but to little avail. At the same time, the African slave trade emerged as a big business. All thirteen English colonies had slaves by 1690, and Charleston, SC, was the principal slave port. Land changed hands too: the English took Manhattan Island from the Dutch (1664), and the French led the race to occupy the Louisiana Territory (late 1600s). Religious fervor and conflict were widespread. Fears of witch-craft reached the level of hysteria, culminating in the Salem witch trials and executions of 1692.